20
January 2004, HST 451
Foundations of Islam
Why is this important?
Readings: Rodinson, Watt, Eickelman, Armstrong (the most complete)
The context
Prophetic tradition, Jewish, Christian
& other monotheistic communities
throughout Arabia, Palestine, Northeast Africa
an “Abrahamic” tradition?
Byzantine and Sasanian empires
to the north
comparisons with Jesus Christ
and Christianity
sources
political role
theological differences
The birth of Islam (“submission”)
Muhammad's birth in Mecca, c.
570 AD or CE
personal images in the readings, NB esp Watt
marriage to Khadija and improvement
in fortunes
Muhammad begins receiving revelation
and starts preaching, c. 610
emerging critiques of Meccans (city-dwellers) and Bedouins (nomads)
controversies in Mecca
an early emigration (615-6) to Aksum
the ultimate emigration (hijra) to Medina, 622
formation of new religion (islam), believers (Muslims), community (umma)
& new polarization and war (jihad of sword)
BECOMES YEAR 1 IN NEW CALENDAR, ANNO HEGIRA (AH)
Medina years, with Medinans (ansar,
companions)
Jewish influences and hostilities (see Armstrong)
conquest of Mecca, 630, after
long struggle
death of Muhammad, 632
Conflicts over the establishment of the new religion and political domain
succession (khalifa, caliph) of
4 “righteous” caliphs
Abu Bakr 632-4, Umar 634-44, Uthman 644-56 and
Ali, Muhammad's son-in-law, 656-61
his death is origin of Shi`a Islam
Shi`ites (“followers”) believe a descendant should succeed
marks first fitna or civil war
Ali’s son Husayn continues the Shia resistance
killed (“martyred”) at Karbala (Iraq) in 681 by Umayyads
part of second fitna or civil war
NB: southern Iraq as “soul” of Shia Islam since that time
Kharijites (“seceders”) believe the “best” should succeed
the dominant succession will later be called Sunni (“the way”)
and consecrates those who secured power (Umayyads, etc.)
over time Sunni or Sunnism will become majority
and be conflated with orthodoxy
fitna, “discord” or “civil war”,
used to describe the intense conflict
term takfir, “becoming an unbeliever,” made often at this time
many parallels to controversies among Muslim leaders today
Expansion and historical highlights
islamization and arabization
Umayyad dynasty (capital Damascus),
next 100 years
PRINCIPAL CONQUESTS AROUND MEDITERRANEAN COMPLETED
Abbasid dynasty (capital Baghdad),
next 400 years
FIRST HALF OF THEIR REIGN MARKS END OF “GLORIOUS” AGE
BEGINNING OF CLEAR FRAGMENTATION IN ISLAMIC WORLD
Andalusian dynasty (capital Cordoba
in Spain; also called Umayyad) from 920s
Fatimid dynasty (capital Cairo;
a Shi’a regime) from early 900s
Crusades (from word for cross):
European or “Frankish” efforts to “recover” Jerusalem and the “Holy Lands”
of Christianity, over against Arab and Turkish Muslims, 1096ff, with strong
leadership from Rome. In the process alienate not just Muslims but
Eastern Christians, both those of obedience to Constantinople and those which
are independent, such as Egyptian and Ethiopian Orthodox Churches.
Other European initiatives.
Spanish and Portuguese “nations” drive out the Andalusians in the reconquista
(1085-1492), large Muslim and Jewish exodus at the same time.
European “Christendom” runs Inquisitions to identify dissidents, including
Spanish Inquisition that lasts into 16th century.
Ottoman Turkish dynasty (capital
Istanbul), dominant from c. 1400
STRONG PROSPEROUS PERIOD, THEN LONG DECLINE
Laying the foundations of Islamic law (Shari`a) and theology
by scholars of law and theology
working in urban centers over 2-300 years
Qur'an, completed within first
decades, the new “Bible”
but understood as God speaking to Muhammad, in Arabic
making translation problematic
divided into 114 suras or chapters, many common themes with the Bible
hadith or traditions of the Prophet,
collected in first decades, circulated later
principles of consensus and analogy
acts that are forbidden (haram),
tolerated and recommended
gradual emergence of Sunni or
“orthodox” Islam; 4 schools of law
produced by scholarly schools in first 2-300 years
Shi`a and Kharijite Islamic law
is very similar for the most part
Divisions of the world and time
Jahiliyya, "ignorance" or pre-Islamic,
v. Islamic times
Kaaba, huge “black stone” shrine established by Abraham in Mecca
corrupted by idolaters (polytheists)
who worshipped many gods, held festivals, pilgrimages, etc.
but prophetic figures are Muslims and have been there to guide Muslims
(Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, David, Solomon, Isa, Muhammad)
so sense of Muslims before Islam
Jews and Christians have distorted their own traditions
Dar al-Islam, “abode of Islam”
Dar al-Harb, “abode of war” (or
D al-Kufr, “bode of unbelief”)
these divisions, and people’s
choices, determine who goes to heaven and hell
similarity to Judaeo-Christian views
Satan or the devil, and evil spirits (jinn) are part of the picture
dhimmi status, for “people of
the Book” et al, within Dar al-Islam
THESE DIVISIONS CAN BE “REDRAWN”
AT ANY TIME
line between Jahiliyya and Islam can be put in the recent period
line between Islam and Harb can be drawn between the “religious” and
“secular”
Individual obligations
1, witness: there is no god but
Allah, and Muhammad is His Prophet
2, prayer, 5 times a day, at designated
times
Friday prayer at 2 pm; ruler's name often given from pulpit
3, alms (zakat)
4, fast (sawm) during 9th month
(Ramadan)
5, pilgrimage (hajj) during 12th
month of Dhu'l-Hajj
to Mecca and surrounding area, visiting scenes of Muhammad’s life
supplemental trips often to Medina
Saudi Arabia has controlled the pilgrimage since early 20th century
a 6th communal obligation sometimes
added: jihad, `effort, struggle'
one form is jihad of the sword, military effort to extend Islam
militants called mujahidun (or -din)
usually fulfillment of these has
defined being a Muslim
Political institutions or the state
presided over by caliph or imam
(with strong religious resonance)
OR sultan or malik (with less
religious or more “secular” resonance)
chief administrator often called
a wazir or vizir
often very elaborate bureaucracies,
central and provincial
Societal institutions (“public sphere” or “civil society”)
varying relations with the state
ulama or clerics, scholars who
interpret Islamic law (Shari`a)
fatwas or decrees to guide the faithful
mosque, place of prayer
imam stands “in front” and leads prayer
school (Qur’anic, higher levels
often called madrasas)
a student is a talib (viz. the Taliban regime of Afghanistan)
court (judicial)
presided over by one of ulama, called a qadi or judge
waqf or endowments
used to support schools, welfare, etc.
Sufi orders
focus on internal ideal rather than external acts
very important in islamization
In practice....
a great deal of pragmatism and
accommodation
Christians, Jews, Zoroastrians,
or “People of the Book”
play important intellectual and artistic roles
often not encouraged to convert
other situations requiring interpretation,
modification
diplomatic relations with non-Muslims
court cases involving Muslims and non-Muslims
Muslim minorities, without a state, living among non-Muslims
abhorrence of chaos: any government is better than none
be it tyranny, paganism, Christian, or secular....