Foundations of Islam

The context
    Prophetic tradition, Jewish, Christian & other monotheistic communities
        throughout Arabia, Palestine, Northeast Africa
    Byzantine and Sasanian empires to the north
    comparisons with Jesus Christ and Christianity
        sources
        political role
        theological differences

The birth of Islam ("submission")
    Muhammad's birth in Mecca, c. 570 AD or CE
    marriage to Khadija and improvement in fortunes
    Muhammad begins receiving revelation and starts preaching, c. 610
        emerging critiques of Meccans (city-dwellers) and Bedouins (nomads)
    controversies in Mecca
        an early emigration (615-6) to Aksum
        the ultimate emigration (hijra) to Medina, 622
        formation of new religion (islam), believers (Muslims), community (umma)
            & new polarization and war (jihad of sword)
        BECOMES YEAR 1 IN NEW CALENDAR, ANNO HEGIRA (AH)
    conquest of Mecca, 630, after long struggle
    death of Muhammad, 632
    succession (khalifa, caliph) of 4 "righteous" caliphs
        Abu Bakr 632-4, Umar 634-44, Uthman 644-56 and
        Ali, Muhammad's son-in-law, 656-61
            his death is origin of Shi`a Islam
            Shi`ites ("followers") believe a descendant should succeed
            marks first "fitna" or civil war
        Ali's son Husayn continues the Shia resistance
            killed ("martyred") at Karbala (Iraq) in 681 by Umayyads
            part of second "fitna" or civil war
        Kharijites ("seceders") believe the "best" should succeed
        the dominant succession will later be called Sunni ("the way")
            and consecrates those who secured power (Umayyads, etc.)
            over time Sunni or Sunnism will become majority
            and be conflated with orthodoxy

Expansion and historical highlights
    islamization and arabization
    Umayyad dynasty (capital Damascus), next 100 years
        PRINCIPAL CONQUESTS AROUND MEDITERRANEAN COMPLETED
    Abbasid dynasty (capital Baghdad), next 400 years
        FIRST HALF OF THEIR REIGN MARKS END OF "GLORIOUS" AGE
        BEGINNING OF CLEAR FRAGMENTATION IN ISLAMIC WORLD
    Andalusian dynasty (capital Cordoba in Spain; also called Umayyad) from 920s
    Fatimid dynasty (capital Cairo; a Shi'a regime) from early 900s
    Crusades (from word for cross): European or "Frankish" efforts to "recover" Jerusalem and the "Holy Lands" of Christianity, over against Arab and Turkish Muslims, 1096ff, with strong leadership from Rome.  In the process alienate not just Muslims but Eastern Christians, both those of obedience to Constantinople and those which are independent, such as Egyptian and Ethiopian Orthodox Churches. 
    Other European initiatives.  Spanish and Portuguese "nations" drive out the Andalusians in the reconquista (1085-1492), large Muslim and Jewish exodus at the same time.      European "Christendom" runs Inquisitions to identify dissidents, including Spanish Inquisition that lasts into 16th century.
    Ottoman Turkish dynasty (capital Istanbul), dominant from c. 1400
        STRONG PROSPEROUS PERIOD, THEN LONG DECLINE

Laying the foundations of Islamic law (Shari`a) and theology
    by scholars of law and theology working in urban centers over 2-300 years
    Qur'an, completed within first decades, the new "Bible"
        but understood as God speaking to Muhammad, in Arabic
        making translation problematic
        divided into 114 suras or chapters, many common themes with the Bible
    hadith or traditions of the Prophet, collected in first decades, circulated later
    principles of consensus and analogy
    acts that are forbidden (haram), tolerated and recommended
    Sunni or "orthodox" Islam; 4 schools of law
        produced by scholarly schools in first 2-300 years
    Shi`a and Kharijite Islamic law is very similar for the most part

Divisions of the world and time
    Jahiliyya, "ignorance" or pre-Islamic, v. Islamic times
        Kaaba, huge "black stone" shrine established by Abraham in Mecca
            corrupted by idolaters (polytheists)
            who worshipped many gods, held festivals, pilgrimages, etc.
        but prophetic figures are Muslims and have been there to guide Muslims
            (Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, David, Solomon, Isa, Muhammad)
            so sense of Muslims before Islam
            Jews and Christians have distorted their own traditions    
    Dar al-Islam, "abode of Islam"
    Dar al-Harb, "abode of war" (or D al-Kufr, "bode of unbelief")
    these divisions, and people's choices, determine who goes to heaven and hell
        similarity to Judaeo-Christian views
        Satan or the devil, and evil spirits (jinn) are part of the picture
    dhimmi status, for "people of the Book" et al, within Dar al-Islam
    THESE DIVISIONS CAN BE "REDRAWN" AT ANY TIME
        line between Jahiliyya and Islam can be put in the recent period
        line between Islam and Harb can be drawn between the "religious" and             "secular"

Individual obligations
    1, witness: there is no god but Allah, and Muhammad is His Prophet
    2, prayer, 5 times a day, at designated times
        Friday prayer at 2 pm; ruler's name often given from pulpit
    3, alms (zakat)
    4, fast (sawm) during 9th month (Ramadan)
    5, pilgrimage (hajj) during 12th month of Dhu'l-Hajj
        to Mecca and surrounding area, visiting scenes of Muhammad's life
        supplemental trips often to Medina
        Saudi Arabia has controlled the pilgrimage since early 20th century
    a 6th communal obligation sometimes added: jihad, `effort, struggle'
        one form is jihad of the sword, military effort to extend Islam
        militants called mujahidun (or -din)

Political institutions or the state
    presided over by caliph or imam (with strong religious resonance)
    OR sultan or malik (with less religious or more "secular" resonance)
    chief administrator often called a wazir or vizir
    often very elaborate bureaucracies, central and provincial

Societal institutions  ("public sphere" or "civil society")
    varying relations with the state
    ulama or clerics, scholars who interpret Islamic law (Shari`a)
        fatwas or decrees to guide the faithful
    mosque, place of prayer
        imam stands "in front" and leads prayer
    school (Qur'anic, higher levels often called madrasas)
        a student is a talib (viz. the Taliban regime of Afghanistan)
    court (judicial)
        presided over by one of ulama, called a qadi or judge
    waqf or endowments
        used to support schools, welfare, etc.
    Sufi orders
        focus on internal ideal rather than external acts
        very important in islamization

Practice
    a great deal of pragmatism and accommodation
    Christians, Jews, Zoroastrians, or "People of the Book"
        play important intellectual and artistic roles
        often not encouraged to convert
    other situations requiring interpretation, modification
        diplomatic relations with non-Muslims
        court cases involving Muslims and non-Muslims
        Muslim minorities, without a state, living among non-Muslims